Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork

The consumption of pork by humans is restricted by many religions that do not advocate vegetarianism. This restriction is most notable for featuring in Judaism and Samaritanism before being widely adopted in other Abrahamic religions, such as Islam, and consequently becoming prominent around the world.^[1] However, it is thought to be rooted in a stigma that was already present in the ancient Near East before the rise of the Israelites—pork was prohibited in parts of Syria^[2] and Phoenicia,^[3] and the pig represented a taboo observed at Comana in Pontus, as noted by the Greek historian Strabo.^[4] A lost poem of the Greek poet Hermesianax, reported centuries later by the Greek geographer Pausanias, described an etiological myth of Attis being destroyed by a supernatural boar to account for the fact that "in consequence of these events, the Galatians who inhabit Pessinous do not touch pork."^[5]

In spite of the common religious stigma associated with pigs, pork remains the most consumed meat of any animal globally.^[6] With regard to Christianity, only certain sects that consider Jewish dietary laws to still be binding abstain from pork, including Seventh-day Adventists, Hebrew Roots, and Messianic Jews. Thus, the Christian-majority Western world is among the regions where pork consumption has historically been widespread, along with East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia.

The Torah contains passages in the Book of Leviticus that list the animals that are permissible for human consumption. According to Leviticus 11:3, animals that have divided hooves and chew their cud—like cows, sheep, and deer—are kosher animals (permissible) and may be consumed by following Jewish jurisprudence for animal slaughter. Pigs do not qualify for this status because, despite having the feet of a typical cud-chewing animal, they do not chew their cud. The ban on the consumption of pork is repeated in the Book of Deuteronomy (14:8). Thus, pig farming was largely absent in Israel and Judah. However, there is an exemption in Judaism on the basis of pikuach nefesh, which allows a Jew to break almost any Torah commandment (including the restriction on consuming pork) without it counting as a sin if they find themselves in a life-threatening situation.

During the Roman period, abstinence from pork became one of the most identifiable features of the Jewish religion to outsiders. One example appears in Histories (5.4.1–2) by the Roman historian Tacitus.

Because Jewish dietary restrictions on pork were well-known to non-Jews, foreign attempts of oppression and assimilation of Jewish populations into Greco-Roman culture often involved attempting to force Jews into consuming pork. According to 2 Maccabees (6:18–7:48), the Seleucid emperor Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to force Jews in his realm to consume pork as part of his attempted restrictions on the practice of Judaism. In addition, the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria records that during the Alexandrian anti-Jewish riots of 38, some Alexandrian mobs also attempted to force Jews into consuming pork.^[8] Some forms of Jewish Christianity also adopted these restrictions on the consumption of pork, as is noted in the early Christian treatise Didascalia Apostolorum.^[9]

Islamic dietary laws concerning pigs are directly extracted from the Quran, in which pork is only rendered permissible for those Muslims who find themselves in an undesirable situation that compels them to consume it. For example, if a Muslim is physically forced, intimidated, or tricked by an oppressor into consuming pork, or if they voluntarily resort to consuming pork because they are facing starvation as a result of famine or total war, then they are entirely free of the sin and will not be judged for it.

Outside of emergencies, pork is haram (unlawful) and cannot be made halal (lawful) by following Islamic jurisprudence for animal slaughter.

There are several passages in the Quran that mention pork being forbidden for human consumption, while also declaring amnesty for those who consume it in exceptional circumstances.

He has only forbidden for you [to eat] carrion, blood, swine, and that which is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—there is no sin upon them. Indeed, Allah is All-Forgiving and All-Merciful.

"He has only forbidden for you [to eat] carrion, blood, swine, and that which is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving and All-Merciful."

Say, O Prophet, "I do not find in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden to eat except carrion, running blood, swine—which is impure—or a sinful offering in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely your Lord is All-Forgiving and All-Merciful."

"For those who are Jewish, We forbade every animal with undivided hooves and the fat of oxen and sheep except what is joined to their backs or intestines or mixed with bone. In this way We rewarded them for their violations. And We are certainly truthful."

According to the Roman historian Sozomen, some Arab polytheists in pre-Islamic Arabia who traced their ancestry to Ishmael abstained from consuming pork.^[12]

In Tyre, Phoenicia, it was forbidden for pork, women, and foreigners to be brought into the sanctuary of the temple of the deity Melqart.^[13] This restriction was attested during the Persian period.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Scythians had a taboo against the pig, which was never offered in sacrifice, and they apparently loathed so much as to even keep the animal within their lands.^[14]

A Scottish pork taboo purportedly existed until the 19th century, as discussed by the Scottish folklorist Donald Alexander Mackenzie. It was particularly prevalent among Highlanders, whom Mackenzie believed refrained from pork due to an ancient taboo.^{[citation needed]} Several writers^[who?] who confirm that there was a prejudice against pork consumption, or a generally superstitious attitude toward pigs, do not see it in terms of a taboo related to an ancient cult.^{[citation needed]}

The American anthropologist Marvin Harris, specializing in cultural materialism, thought that the main reason for prohibiting consumption of pork was ecological and economical.^[15] Pigs require water and shady woods with seeds,^{[citation needed]} but such conditions are scarce in the Near East. Unlike many other animals that are kept as livestock, pigs are not herbivores—they are omnivores and are also known for scavenging, which may have contributed to their reputation of ritual uncleanliness. Furthermore, a Near Eastern society keeping large stocks of pigs could destroy their ecosystem.^{[citation needed]}

It is speculated that chickens supplanted pigs as a more portable and efficient source of meat, and these practical concerns led to the religious restrictions.^[16]

The Jewish polymath Maimonides, who served as the personal physician of the Muslim sultan Saladin in the 12th century, understood the common dietary laws chiefly as a means of keeping the body healthy. He argued that the meat of the forbidden animals, birds, and fish is unwholesome and indigestible. According to Maimonides, at first glance, this does not apply to pork, which does not appear to be harmful. Yet, Maimonides observes, the pig is a filthy animal, and if swine were used for food, marketplaces and even houses would be dirtier than latrines.^[17]

The French rabbi Rashi, in his commentary on the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud, lists the prohibition of pork as a Jewish dietary law that would be derided by others as making no sense.^[18]

The Sefer HaChinuch^[19] (an early work of halakha) gives a general overview of the Jewish dietary laws. The anonymous Levite writes "And if there are any reasons for the dietary laws which are unknown to us or those knowledgeable in the health field, do not wonder about them, for the true Healer that warns us against them is smarter than us, and smarter than the doctors."

• Food and drink prohibitions
  • Jewish dietary laws
    • Kosher foods
    • Kosher animals
  • Christian dietary laws
  • Islamic dietary laws
• Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws
  • Ritually unclean animal
• Pig toilet

• Verse 174 of Chapter 2 (Al-Baqarah) in the Quran prohibiting "the blood and flesh of swine"
• Laws of Judaism and Islam concerning food
• Ruane, Nicole J. (n.d.). "Why Does the Bible Prohibit Eating Pork?". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
• Darshan, Guy, "Pork Consumption as an Identity Marker in Ancient Israel: The Textual Evidence", Journal for the Study of Judaism 53,4-5 (2022).