This is a list of wars and conflicts involving Burundi and its previous states.
List
[edit]| Conflict | Combatant 1 | Combatant 2 | Result | Head of State | Losses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Martyazo Rebellion (1972) |
 Burundi
|
 Martyazo
|
Victory
|
800–1200[1] | |
| Burundian Civil War[2] (1993–2005) |
 Burundi
|
Ethnic Hutu rebels:
Hutu militias and youth gangs:
ALiR[4]
RPF (Rwanda) |
Arusha Accords (2000) | Several
|
300,000[7] |
| First Congo War (1996-1997) |
 AFDL Rwanda Uganda[8] Burundi[9] Angola[9] SPLA[10] Eritrea[11]Supported by:  South Africa[12] Zambia[13] Zimbabwe[12] Ethiopia[14] Tanzania United States (covertly)[15]
|
 Zaire
|
AFDL victory
|
Unknown | |
| Kivu Conflict (2004–) |
Pro-government:
|
Rwandan-aligned militias:
Anti-Ugandan forces: Anti-Rwandan militias: Anti-Burundi militias: Mai-Mai militias:
|
Ongoing
|
Unknown | |
| Somali Civil War (2007–) |
2007–2009: 2009–present: Regional forces
Allies  UNPOS (1995–2013)
UNSOM (2013–2024) UNTMIS (2025–present) UNSOA (2009–2016) UNSOS (2016–present)
Independent regional forces |
2007–2009: 2006–2009: 2009–present:
Eritrea[44]
Alleged non-state allies:
Allies 2009–present: Alleged support: |
Ongoing
|
Unknown |
Notes
[edit]- ^ The PALIPEHUTU-FNL split into several factions in course of the civil war. The political and militant wings of the party separated in 1999, while the militant wing subsequently divided into FNL-Kabura, FNL-Rwasa, and FNL-Icanzo. Most of the FNL signed a peace agreement with the Burundian government in May 2005, but several dissident elements of the FNL continued to fight until 2009.[3]
- ^ a b Many Mai-Mai militias in eastern Zaire initially allied themselves with Rwanda and the AFDL against Hutu militants and refugees.[23] As soon as most Hutu were driven away, however, many Mai-Mai groups turned against Rwanda and the AFDL.[24] Despite this, some anti-Hutu Mai-Mai remained allied with Rwanda and the AFDL.[25]
References
[edit]- ^ "The Burundi Killings of 1972 | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network". www.sciencespo.fr. Retrieved 2019-01-10.
- ^ Burundi also got involved in the Second Congo War as the conflict spread into the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but played a minor role compared to the other countries that fought the Congolese government; namely, Uganda and Rwanda.
- ^ Lansford (2017), p. 225.
- ^ Ngaruko & Nkurunziza (2005), p. 49.
- ^ a b Prunier (2009), pp. 298–299.
- ^ Prunier (2009), p. 288.
- ^ "Heavy shelling in Burundi capital". 2008-04-18. Retrieved 2019-01-10.
- ^ Prunier (2004), pp. 375–376.
- ^ a b Duke, Lynne (15 April 1997). "Passive Protest Stops Zaire's Capital Cold". The Washington Post. p. A14. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011.
Kabila's forces – which are indeed backed by Rwanda, Angola, Uganda and Burundi, diplomats say – are slowly advancing toward the capital from the eastern half of the country, where they have captured all the regions that produce Zaire's diamonds, gold, copper and cobalt.
- ^ a b Prunier (2004), pp. 376–377.
- ^ Plaut (2016), pp. 54–55.
- ^ a b "Consensual Democracy" in Post-genocide Rwanda. International Crisis Group. 2001. p. 8.
In that first struggle in the Congo, Rwanda, allied with Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Burundi, had brought Laurent Désiré Kabila to power in Kinshasa
- ^ Reyntjens 2009, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Usanov, Artur (2013). Coltan, Congo and Conflict. Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. p. 36.
- ^ Prunier (2009), pp. 118, 126–127.
- ^ Toïngar, Ésaïe (2014). Idriss Deby and the Darfur Conflict. p. 119.
In 1996, President Mobutu of Zaire requested that mercenaries be sent from Chad to help defend his government from rebel forces led by Lauren Desiré Kabila. ... When a number of the troops were ambushed by Kabila and killed in defense of Mobutu's government, Mobutu paid Déby a fee in honor of their service.
- ^ Prunier (2009), pp. 116–118.
- ^ Duke, Lynne (20 May 1997). "Congo Begins Process of Rebuilding Nation". The Washington Post. p. A10. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011.
Guerrillas of Angola's former rebel movement UNITA, long supported by Mobutu in an unsuccessful war against Angola's government, also fought for Mobutu against Kabila's forces.
- ^ Prunier (2004), pp. 375–377.
- ^ Reyntjens 2009, pp. 112–113.
- ^ "The United Nations' Mapping Exercise Report and Uganda's involvement in the Democratic Republic of Congo conflict from 1996 to 2003 - African Human Rights Law Journal (AHRLJ)".
- ^ a b c Reyntjens 2009, pp. 112.
- ^ Prunier (2009), pp. 117, 130, 143.
- ^ Prunier (2009), p. 130.
- ^ Prunier (2009), p. 143.
- ^ "Smoking guns". Transnational Institute. 2021-07-28. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 2021-10-28.
- ^ West, Sunguta (31 May 2019). "Has Islamic State Really Entered the Congo and is an IS Province There a Gamble?" (PDF). Terrorism Monitor. 17 (11). Jamestown Foundation: 7–9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
- ^ "Malawi to send peacekeepers to Somalia". IRIN. 2007-01-22. Retrieved 2007-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e f Gaid, Samira (November–December 2022). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina (eds.). "The 2022 Somali Offensive Against al-Shabaab: Making Enduring Gains Will Require Learning from Previous Failures" (PDF). CTC Sentinel. 15 (11). West Point, New York: Combating Terrorism Center: 31–38. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
- ^ "MA'AWISLEY: A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD IN THE FIGHT AGAINST AL-SHABAAB – Rift Valley Institute". Retrieved 2025-03-10.
- ^ "Somalia: Islamist Group Supports President Sharif". Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- ^ "In Somalia, U.S. Escalates a Shadow War – The New York Times". The New York Times. 16 October 2016. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^ Brown, David (31 July 2017). "US airstrike kills Somalia fighter under new Trump authority". Washingtonexaminer.com. Archived from the original on 18 August 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^ "Somalia: China Donates Military Equipment to Somalia to Aid War Against Terrorists". 19 March 2022. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2025.
- ^ "索马里遇难武警被称为"许三多"中弹拒绝回国休养--时政--人民网". People's Daily. Retrieved 2025-02-21.
- ^ "France reportedly bombs Somali town".
- ^ "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. 3 November 2010. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ "Russia offers support to Somalian army in fight against terrorist groups". ABC News. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
- ^ "Russia Offers Military Support to Somalia". VOA. 2023-05-26. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
- ^ Dhaysane, Mohammed (9 March 2021). "New batch of Somali troops to get training in Turkey". aa.com.tr.
- ^ Weiss, Caleb (2025-02-05). "US, UAE conducting airstrikes in northern Somalia". FDD's Long War Journal. Retrieved 2025-02-05.
- ^ "First British troops arrive in Somalia as part of UN mission". The Guardian. 2 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
- ^ "Italy pledges to Somali gov't financial support to uproot Al shabaab". Shabelle. 3 November 2010. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- "Exclusive: Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report". Reuters. 16 July 2012.
- "How does 'poor' Eritrea afford to fund Al-Shabaab?". Africa Review. 8 November 2011. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- "Eritrea 'arming' Somali militia". BBC News. 27 July 2007. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2010.*"UN probes Eritrea arms in Somalia – Africa". Al Jazeera English. 16 May 2009. Archived from the original on 8 March 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- Gettleman, Jeffrey (27 July 2007). "A U.N. Report on Somalia Accuses Eritrea of Adding to the Chaos". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (17 July 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020.
Somali military officials maintain that Iran has been running secret operations to undermine the United States in Somalia, providing sophisticated weapons, improvised explosive100000 als used to make bombs. The military officials allege that Iran and its proxies are complicit in al-Shabab attacks on the U.S. military, Somali forces, and the African Union Mission in Somalia
- "The Growing Relationship between Iran and al-Shabab Movement in Somalia: Motives and Potential Consequences". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
For Iran, working with non-State actors such as Al-Shabaab and the Houthis is an essential part of its foreign policy, aimed at expanding its geopolitical influence throughout the region. Tehran has developed an unspoken alliance with Al-Shabaab with the aim of creating a covert intelligence network that will allow it to achieve its goals and support its interests in the Middle East and Africa.
- "Al-Qaeda Affiliate Reportedly Using Iran As Transit Point For Banned Exports". RFE/RL. 13 October 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018.
- "Iran denies shipping arms to Islamist militants in Somalia". Reuters. 2013-02-14. Archived from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
- Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (17 July 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Bashir, Hamdi (7 October 2020). "The Future of the Role of Iran's Quds Force in Africa". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022.
The Quds Force has been working with agents and allies, such as Lebanon's Hezbollah and Somalia's Al-Shabaab, which are thought to have recently established relations with the Quds Force.
- Fazeli, Yaghoub (19 July 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021.
- Fraser-Rahim, Muhammad (17 July 2020). "In Somalia, Iran Is Replicating Russia's Afghan Strategy". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 17 July 2020.
Somali police and finance ministry officials claim the Quds Force uses these networks to smuggle Iranian oil into Somalia and then sell cheap oil across Africa to subvert U.S. sanctions, with some of the proceeds used to support militants in Yemen and Somalia
* Bartell, Dawn L.; Gray, David H. (Fall 2012). "Hezbollah and Al Shabaab in Mexico". Global Security Studies. 3 (4): 100–112. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023.
- Bashir, Hamdi (7 October 2020). "The Future of the Role of Iran's Quds Force in Africa". Emirates Policy Center. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Ahmed, Guled (9 February 2021). "As Farmaajo digs in with Qatari backing, Somalia's election crisis grows worse". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021.
Qatar has allegedly used al-Shabab to target groups it has identified as opposing its interests, including Somali politicians critical of Doha's role in the country and outside actors like the United Arab Emirates
- Lynch, Colum (28 November 2012). "Qatar's support for Islamists muddles its reputation as neutral broker in Mideast". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 December 2012.
Qatar's cultivation of African Islamists, principally Somalia's al-Shabab insurgents, has similarly troubled the United States, which has accused the movement of providing a haven for al-Qaeda militants involved in attacks against Americans
- Mustafa, Awad; Singh, Karam (2 August 2017). "Qatar in the Horn of Africa: Friend or Foe?". Small Wars Journal. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017.
- Yüksel, Engin; Tekineş, Haşim (26 August 2021). "Turkish-Qatari approaches to conflict and crisis across the region". Clingendael. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021.
Qatari individuals and government representatives are reported to have been in regular contact with Al-Qaeda and its affiliates in Syria, Iraq, Somalia and Yemen in order to exert geopolitical influence
- Ahmed, Guled (9 February 2021). "As Farmaajo digs in with Qatari backing, Somalia's election crisis grows worse". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Houreld, Katharine (10 November 2021). "Iranian-supplied arms smuggled from Yemen into Somalia, study says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 November 2021.
Guns supplied by Iran to its Houthi allies in Yemen are being smuggled across the Gulf of Aden to Somalia, according to a Geneva-based think tank, where al Qaeda-linked al Shabab insurgents are battling a weak and divided government.
- Redondo, Raúl (20 July 2020). "Iran allies with Al-Shabaab in Somalia to distribute arms to Houthi rebels". Atalayar. Archived from the original on 19 August 2023.
Iran has established links with the jihadist group Al-Shabaab in Somalia to attack United States and other international forces in the African country and the region and to supply arms to Houthi rebels in Yemen
- Fazeli, Yaghoub (19 July 2020). "Iran linking with Somalia's al-Shabab to funnel weapons to Houthis". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021.
- Houreld, Katharine (10 November 2021). "Iranian-supplied arms smuggled from Yemen into Somalia, study says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 10 November 2021.
- ^ UN sources:
- "Final report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2140 (2014)" (PDF). un.org. UN Security Council. 11 October 2024. pp. 2, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 November 2024.
In addition, increased smuggling activities involving small arms and light weapons are observed between the Houthis and Al-Shabaab, with indications of shared military supplies or a common supplier. ... Houthis are evaluating options to carry out attacks at sea from the Somali coast. To that end, they are strengthening ties with the terrorist group Harakat Al-Shabaab Al-Mujaahidiin (Al-Shabaab).
- "UN experts say Houthis collaborated with Al-Qaeda to weaken Yemeni government". Arab News. 3 November 2024. Archived from the original on 8 November 2024.
- "UN Panel of Experts Report Reveals Houthi Militia's Relationship with Al-Qaeda and Al-Shabaab Movement in Somalia". Yemen Shabab Net. 2 November 2024. Archived from the original on 8 November 2024.
- "Final report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen established pursuant to Security Council resolution 2140 (2014)" (PDF). un.org. UN Security Council. 11 October 2024. pp. 2, 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 November 2024.
- ^ a b Robyn Kriel; Briana Duggan (10 July 2017). "CNN Exclusive: Somali pirate kings are under investigation for helping ISIS and al-Shabaab". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
- ^ "ISIL's First East African Affiliate Conducts Attacks in Somalia, Kenya". DefenseNews. 29 December 2015.
- ^ "Somalia: Pro-ISIL militants, Al Shabaab clash in deadly Puntland infighting". Garowe Online. 24 December 2015. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2016.
- ^ "The Islamic State in Somalia: Responding to an Evolving Threat". International Crisis Group. 12 September 2024. Archived from the original on 13 September 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
- ^ "Fierce clashes erupt between Somaliland, SSC Khatumo forces in Sool's Yeyle region". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved 2025-03-08.
- ^ "SSC Khatumo leader calls for renewed offensive as Somaliland faces resistance over militia nationalization". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved 2025-03-08.
- ^ "Ethiopia training Somaliland troops amid tension with Somalia". Garowe Online. 2020-06-30. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
- ^ "UAE expands military ties with Somaliland as Somalia looks on". www.hiiraan.com. Retrieved 2025-04-06.
Sources
[edit]- Lansford, Tom (2017). Political Handbook of the World 2016-2017. Volume 1. London: CQ Press. ISBN 9781506327150.
- Ngaruko, Floribert; Nkurunziza, Janvier D. (2005). "Civil War and Its Duration in Burundi". In Paul Collier; Nicholas Sambanis (eds.). Understanding Civil War: Africa. Evidence and Analysis. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. pp. 35–62. ISBN 978-0-8213-6047-7.
- Plaut, Martin (2016). Understanding Eritrea: Inside Africa's Most Repressive State. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-066959-1.
- Prunier, Gérard (July 2004). "Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo (1986-99)". African Affairs. 103 (412): 359–383. doi:10.1093/afraf/adh050. JSTOR 3518562.
- Prunier, Gérard (2009). Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-970583-2.
- Reyntjens, Filip (2009). The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996-2006. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11128-7.